IELTS Reading: Tác Động Của Hiệp Định Thương Mại Toàn Cầu Đến Tính Bền Vững Môi Trường – Đề Thi Mẫu Có Đáp Án Chi Tiết

Mở Bài

Chủ đề về tác động của các hiệp định thương mại toàn cầu đến tính bền vững môi trường đã trở thành một trong những nội dung được ưa chuộng trong kỳ thi IELTS Reading những năm gần đây. Với xu hướng toàn cầu hóa và những lo ngại ngày càng tăng về biến đổi khí hậu, chủ đề này xuất hiện thường xuyên trong các đề thi IELTS Academic, đặc biệt từ Cambridge IELTS 14 trở đi.

Bài viết này cung cấp cho bạn một bộ đề thi IELTS Reading hoàn chỉnh với 3 passages có độ khó tăng dần từ Easy đến Hard, phù hợp cho học viên từ band 5.0 trở lên. Bạn sẽ được thực hành với 40 câu hỏi đa dạng các dạng bài, bao gồm Multiple Choice, True/False/Not Given, Yes/No/Not Given, Matching Headings, Summary Completion và nhiều dạng khác. Mỗi câu hỏi đều đi kèm đáp án chi tiết và giải thích cụ thể về vị trí thông tin trong bài, cách paraphrase và kỹ thuật làm bài hiệu quả.

Đề thi này không chỉ giúp bạn làm quen với format thi thật mà còn trang bị từ vựng chuyên ngành quan trọng và chiến lược đọc hiểu học thuật. Hãy dành trọn 60 phút để hoàn thành bài test này trong điều kiện giống thi thật để đánh giá chính xác năng lực hiện tại của bạn.

Hướng Dẫn Làm Bài IELTS Reading

Tổng Quan Về IELTS Reading Test

Bài thi IELTS Reading kéo dài 60 phút với 3 passages và tổng cộng 40 câu hỏi. Mỗi câu trả lời đúng được tính 1 điểm, không bị trừ điểm khi sai. Độ dài mỗi passage từ 700-1000 từ, với độ khó tăng dần.

Phân bổ thời gian khuyến nghị:

• Passage 1: 15-17 phút (độ khó Easy, band 5.0-6.5)
• Passage 2: 18-20 phút (độ khó Medium, band 6.0-7.5)
• Passage 3: 23-25 phút (độ khó Hard, band 7.0-9.0)

Lưu ý: Không có thời gian bổ sung để chép đáp án sang Answer Sheet, vì vậy bạn cần ghi câu trả lời trực tiếp trong quá trình làm bài.

Các Dạng Câu Hỏi Trong Đề Này

Đề thi này bao gồm 7 dạng câu hỏi phổ biến nhất trong IELTS Reading:

1. Multiple Choice – Chọn đáp án đúng nhất từ A, B, C hoặc D
2. True/False/Not Given – Xác định thông tin đúng, sai hay không được đề cập
3. Yes/No/Not Given – Xác định quan điểm của tác giả
4. Matching Headings – Ghép tiêu đề phù hợp với đoạn văn
5. Summary Completion – Hoàn thành đoạn tóm tắt
6. Matching Features – Ghép thông tin với đối tượng tương ứng
7. Short-answer Questions – Trả lời câu hỏi ngắn

IELTS Reading Practice Test

PASSAGE 1 – The Evolution of Trade and Environmental Standards

Độ khó: Easy (Band 5.0-6.5)

Thời gian đề xuất: 15-17 phút

The relationship between international trade agreements and environmental protection has undergone significant transformation over the past five decades. In the early 1970s, when the first major multilateral trade agreements were being negotiated, environmental concerns were rarely mentioned in trade discussions. The primary focus was on reducing tariffs, eliminating trade barriers, and promoting economic growth through increased commerce between nations. However, as scientific understanding of environmental degradation improved and public awareness grew, the need to integrate environmental considerations into trade policy became increasingly apparent.

The World Trade Organization (WTO), established in 1995, marked a turning point in this evolution. Unlike its predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the WTO included provisions that acknowledged the importance of sustainable development. Article XX of the GATT agreement, which was carried over to the WTO framework, allows countries to adopt measures necessary to protect human, animal, or plant life or health, and to conserve exhaustible natural resources. This provision has been used to justify various environmental regulations that might otherwise be considered barriers to trade.

One of the earliest examples of trade-environment conflicts emerged in the 1990s with the “tuna-dolphin” dispute between Mexico and the United States. The US had implemented regulations prohibiting the importation of tuna caught using methods that resulted in high dolphin mortality rates. Mexico challenged this ban, arguing it violated international trade rules. The case highlighted a fundamental tension: should countries be allowed to restrict trade based on how products are made (known as process and production methods or PPMs), or should trade rules focus solely on the characteristics of the final product? This question remains contentious in modern trade negotiations.

The incorporation of environmental chapters in trade agreements became more common in the 2000s. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into effect in 1994, included a side agreement on environmental cooperation—the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC). This represented an early attempt to address environmental concerns alongside trade liberalization. The agreement established the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC), which aimed to prevent potential trade-induced environmental problems and promote sustainable practices across member countries.

More recent trade agreements have taken increasingly comprehensive approaches to environmental protection. The Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), finalized in 2018, includes an entire chapter dedicated to environmental issues. This chapter contains legally binding provisions on matters such as marine conservation, sustainable forestry, and the protection of the ozone layer. Significantly, it also includes commitments to implement multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer.

The European Union has been particularly proactive in linking trade policy with environmental objectives. The EU’s trade agreements typically include sustainable development chapters that cover not only environmental protection but also labor standards and corporate social responsibility. These chapters often reference international conventions and create mechanisms for civil society participation in monitoring compliance. However, critics note that these provisions are sometimes difficult to enforce and may lack the strong dispute settlement mechanisms found in other parts of trade agreements.

Despite these developments, significant challenges remain. One major issue concerns the enforceability of environmental provisions in trade agreements. While commercial chapters typically have robust enforcement mechanisms, including the possibility of trade sanctions for violations, environmental commitments are often subject to weaker enforcement procedures. This asymmetry has led some environmental advocates to argue that trade agreements prioritize economic interests over environmental protection. Additionally, developing countries sometimes view stringent environmental standards in trade agreements as potential barriers to their economic development, creating a “race to the bottom” concern where countries might lower environmental standards to attract investment and remain competitive in global markets.

Looking forward, the relationship between trade and environment continues to evolve. Climate change has emerged as a critical concern, with discussions about carbon border adjustments and the trade implications of climate policies gaining prominence. As countries around the world implement different approaches to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, questions arise about whether and how trade policy should account for these differences. The challenge for policymakers is to design trade agreements that genuinely support both economic prosperity and environmental sustainability, ensuring that the pursuit of one does not come at the expense of the other.

Questions 1-6

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Passage 1?

Write:

• TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
• FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
• NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1. In the 1970s, environmental issues were a central focus of international trade negotiations.

2. The World Trade Organization was created with provisions that recognized sustainable development.

3. The tuna-dolphin dispute involved disagreements about fishing methods and their environmental impact.

4. NAFTA was the first trade agreement ever to include environmental considerations.

5. The CPTPP contains legally enforceable environmental commitments.

6. All EU trade agreements have stronger enforcement mechanisms for environmental provisions than for commercial provisions.

Questions 7-10

Complete the summary below.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

The relationship between trade and environment has changed significantly. Early trade agreements focused mainly on economic goals like reducing 7) __ between countries. The WTO’s Article XX allows countries to protect natural resources and implement 8) __ even if they might affect trade. Recent agreements like the CPTPP include complete chapters on environmental issues, covering topics such as marine conservation and protecting the 9) __. However, critics argue that there is an 10) __ between the enforcement of commercial and environmental provisions in trade agreements.

Questions 11-13

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

11. According to the passage, what was the main difference between GATT and the WTO?

    • A) The WTO had more member countries
    • B) The WTO included sustainable development provisions
    • C) The WTO focused only on tariffs
    • D) The WTO eliminated all trade barriers

12. The “process and production methods” debate concerns:

    • A) Whether products should be labeled with their country of origin
    • B) Whether trade restrictions can be based on how goods are manufactured
    • C) Whether developing countries should have lower standards
    • D) Whether environmental agreements should be legally binding

13. What concern do developing countries have about environmental standards in trade agreements?

    • A) They are too expensive to monitor
    • B) They might hinder economic development
    • C) They favor European countries
    • D) They are not scientifically based

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PASSAGE 2 – Economic Integration and Environmental Outcomes: Evidence and Analysis

Độ khó: Medium (Band 6.0-7.5)

Thời gian đề xuất: 18-20 phút

The empirical relationship between trade liberalization and environmental quality has been the subject of extensive academic research, yet consensus remains elusive. The theoretical framework most commonly employed to analyze this relationship is the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), which posits an inverted U-shaped relationship between economic development and environmental degradation. According to this hypothesis, environmental quality initially deteriorates as economies industrialize and income levels rise, but after reaching a certain threshold of per capita income, further economic growth leads to environmental improvement. The integration of countries into the global trading system adds complexity to this relationship, as trade liberalization can affect environmental outcomes through multiple, sometimes contradictory, channels.

Trade expansion influences environmental quality through three primary mechanisms, collectively known as the scale, composition, and technique effects. The scale effect represents the environmental impact of increased economic activity resulting from trade. As production and consumption expand, more natural resources are extracted and more pollution emissions are generated, all else being equal. This effect is generally considered negative from an environmental perspective. The composition effect refers to changes in the structure of economic activity—specifically, whether trade liberalization causes countries to specialize in more or less pollution-intensive industries. This effect can be positive or negative depending on a country’s comparative advantage. Countries abundant in labor might specialize in labor-intensive manufacturing, which could be relatively pollution-intensive, while those with abundant capital and skilled labor might shift toward cleaner service industries or high-technology manufacturing.

The technique effect, often viewed as potentially offsetting the negative scale effect, encompasses improvements in environmental performance that occur as countries become wealthier through trade. These improvements may result from several factors: increased demand for environmental quality as incomes rise (the income effect), access to cleaner technologies through international trade and investment, and the adoption of more stringent environmental regulations as societies prioritize environmental protection. Additionally, trade agreements themselves may include provisions that encourage the harmonization of environmental standards or the transfer of environmentally-friendly technologies between countries.

Empirical studies examining the trade-environment relationship have produced mixed results, reflecting the complexity of isolating trade’s effects from other confounding factors. A meta-analysis conducted by researchers at the World Bank reviewed 103 studies investigating the relationship between trade openness and various environmental indicators. The analysis found that approximately 40% of studies reported a positive correlation between trade and environmental quality, 40% found a negative correlation, and 20% found no significant relationship. These divergent findings can be attributed to differences in methodological approaches, time periods examined, countries included, and environmental indicators measured.

Research focusing on specific pollutants has yielded somewhat more consistent findings. Studies examining carbon dioxide emissions—the primary greenhouse gas contributing to climate change—generally find that trade liberalization is associated with increased emissions in the short to medium term, primarily through the scale effect. However, the magnitude of this relationship varies considerably across countries and depends heavily on their energy mix and the carbon intensity of their exports. Countries that export fossil fuels or energy-intensive manufactured goods naturally experience larger emissions increases from trade expansion than those exporting services or low-carbon products.

The “pollution haven hypothesis” represents another important dimension of the trade-environment debate. This hypothesis suggests that differences in environmental regulations between countries may influence the geographical distribution of pollution-intensive industries, with lax environmental standards potentially attracting such industries to developing countries. Proponents argue that this creates a perverse incentive for countries to maintain weak environmental regulations to attract foreign investment and remain competitive in global markets. However, empirical support for this hypothesis has been surprisingly limited. Most studies find that environmental regulations have only modest effects on firm location decisions, with factors such as labor costs, market access, and infrastructure quality playing far more significant roles.

One explanation for the limited evidence supporting the pollution haven hypothesis is the relatively small cost that environmental compliance represents for most industries. Research suggests that environmental compliance costs typically constitute only 1-3% of total production costs for manufacturers, insufficient to drive major relocation decisions. Moreover, multinational corporations often adopt uniform global standards that exceed minimum requirements in many countries, partly to simplify operations and partly to protect their corporate reputation. Additionally, some evidence suggests that foreign direct investment (FDI) can actually promote environmental improvements in host countries through the transfer of cleaner technologies and management practices—the so-called “pollution halo effect”.

Recent research has increasingly focused on the role of global value chains (GVCs) in shaping environmental outcomes. As production processes fragment across multiple countries, environmental impacts become similarly dispersed. Products consumed in developed countries with stringent environmental regulations may embody significant embodied carbon and other pollutants generated during manufacturing in countries with weaker standards. This phenomenon, known as “carbon leakage” or “emissions offshoring”, raises questions about the effectiveness of national environmental policies in an interconnected global economy and highlights the potential role for internationally coordinated approaches, including environmental provisions in trade agreements.

Sơ đồ minh họa các hiệu ứng quy mô thành phần kỹ thuật trong thương mại toàn cầu

Looking ahead, the COVID-19 pandemic has prompted renewed discussion about the structure of global supply chains and their environmental implications. Some analysts argue that the pandemic’s disruption of international trade networks will lead to regionalization or reshoring of production, potentially reducing transportation-related emissions. Others contend that once the pandemic subsides, economic incentives will drive a return to globally dispersed supply chains. Regardless of the outcome, the pandemic has highlighted the vulnerability of complex international production networks and may influence future discussions about the resilience and sustainability of global trade systems.

Questions 14-18

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

14. According to the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis:

    • A) Environmental quality always improves with economic development
    • B) Trade liberalization directly causes environmental degradation
    • C) Environmental degradation increases then decreases as income rises
    • D) Wealthy countries always have better environmental quality

15. The scale effect of trade on the environment is:

    • A) Always positive for environmental quality
    • B) Negative because increased production generates more pollution
    • C) Dependent on a country’s comparative advantage
    • D) Related to technological improvements

16. What percentage of studies in the World Bank meta-analysis found no significant relationship between trade and environment?

    • A) 40%
    • B) 20%
    • C) 60%
    • D) 103%

17. The pollution haven hypothesis has:

    • A) Been strongly confirmed by empirical research
    • B) Limited empirical support from most studies
    • C) Only been tested in developing countries
    • D) Been proven false by all research

18. Environmental compliance costs typically represent what proportion of total production costs?

    • A) Less than 1%
    • B) 1-3%
    • C) 5-10%
    • D) More than 10%

Questions 19-23

Complete the sentences below.

Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

19. The composition effect depends on whether countries specialize in industries with different levels of __.

20. The technique effect includes improvements from increased income, technology access, and more stringent __.

21. Studies on carbon dioxide emissions find that trade liberalization leads to increased emissions mainly through the __.

22. Multinational corporations often use __ that go beyond minimum local requirements.

23. When products consumed in one country contain pollution from manufacturing in another, this is called __.

Questions 24-26

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Passage 2?

Write:

• YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
• NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
• NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

24. Research on the trade-environment relationship has reached a clear consensus.

25. Foreign direct investment always harms environmental quality in host countries.

26. The COVID-19 pandemic has raised questions about the structure of global supply chains.

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PASSAGE 3 – Reconciling Trade Liberalization with Climate Action: Policy Mechanisms and Future Trajectories

Độ khó: Hard (Band 7.0-9.0)

Thời gian đề xuất: 23-25 phút

The intersection of international trade policy and climate change mitigation represents one of the most consequential and contentious domains in contemporary global governance. As nations intensify efforts to fulfill commitments under the Paris Agreement—which aims to limit global temperature increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels—the potential for regulatory divergence in climate policies across jurisdictions has grown substantially. This heterogeneity in climate ambition creates economic asymmetries that generate profound implications for international competitiveness, potentially undermining both the political feasibility of ambitious climate policies and the environmental integrity of the global response to climate change. Consequently, policymakers are increasingly exploring mechanisms that might reconcile trade liberalization with robust climate action, though each approach entails significant technical, political, and legal complexities.

Border carbon adjustments (BCAs), also termed carbon border adjustment mechanisms (CBAMs), have emerged as perhaps the most prominent policy instrument proposed to address the trade-related challenges of asymmetric climate policies. The fundamental premise of BCAs is straightforward: they seek to equalize the carbon costs faced by domestic producers and foreign competitors by imposing charges on imports from jurisdictions with less stringent carbon pricing and potentially providing rebates on exports to such jurisdictions. The European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism, which entered its transitional phase in October 2023, represents the first major implementation of this concept at scale. Initially covering cement, iron and steel, aluminum, fertilizers, electricity, and hydrogen, the EU CBAM requires importers to purchase certificates corresponding to the embedded carbon emissions in covered products, with the certificate price linked to the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS) carbon price.

Proponents of BCAs articulate several potential benefits. Environmentally, BCAs may mitigate carbon leakage—the phenomenon whereby emissions reductions achieved in jurisdictions with stringent climate policies are offset by emissions increases in jurisdictions with weaker policies, either through the relocation of production or through market-mediated effects such as changes in global fossil fuel prices. By neutralizing competitive disadvantages associated with carbon pricing, BCAs could enhance the political durability of ambitious climate policies, assuaging concerns among emissions-intensive trade-exposed industries about competitiveness impacts. Furthermore, BCAs might incentivize trading partners to adopt more ambitious climate policies themselves to avoid the imposition of border adjustments, potentially catalyzing a “race to the top” in climate ambition rather than the “race to the bottom” feared in their absence.

Nevertheless, BCAs confront formidable implementation challenges and have sparked vigorous debate regarding their economic efficiency, distributional consequences, and compatibility with international trade law. From a technical standpoint, accurately measuring the carbon content of imported products presents significant difficulties, particularly for manufactured goods involving complex global value chains where production processes span multiple jurisdictions. The carbon intensity of a product depends not only on direct emissions from manufacturing but also on upstream emissions from raw materials and energy generation, each potentially produced under varying technological and regulatory conditions. The administrative burden of tracking and verifying such granular emissions data across international supply chains could be substantial, potentially creating disproportionate compliance costs for smaller firms and developing country exporters.

The compatibility of BCAs with World Trade Organization rules remains uncertain and contentious. While WTO jurisprudence has established that environmental measures may be justified under Article XX exceptions to general trade rules, such measures must meet stringent requirements, including not being applied in a manner that constitutes “arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination” between countries where the same conditions prevail. Critics argue that BCAs risk violating national treatment and most-favored-nation principles if they treat imported products less favorably than “like” domestic products or if they discriminate among imports from different countries with varying climate policies. Defenders contend that products with different carbon footprints are not “like products” in the legal sense and that BCAs can be designed to comply with WTO rules, citing favorable elements in previous WTO dispute settlement rulings that acknowledged environmental motivations and the importance of considering process and production methods in certain contexts.

Beyond legal considerations, BCAs raise significant equity and development concerns. Developing countries have strongly criticized BCAs as potentially undermining the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” enshrined in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which recognizes that developed countries bear greater historical responsibility for climate change and possess greater capacity to address it. For many developing nations, particularly those dependent on exports of emission-intensive primary commodities or manufactured goods, BCAs could represent significant barriers to market access and economic development. Some analysts advocate for differential treatment or exemptions for least developed countries and small island developing states, though such provisions would need careful design to maintain environmental effectiveness while respecting WTO non-discrimination principles.

Alternative or complementary approaches to addressing trade-environment-climate intersections have garnered increasing attention. Climate clubs, as conceptualized by economist William Nordhaus and elaborated by subsequent researchers, would establish coalitions of countries committed to strong climate action, with preferential trade treatment among members and potential barriers against non-members. Such arrangements might facilitate deeper cooperation on climate policy among willing participants while creating incentives for broader participation. However, climate clubs face challenges related to defining participation criteria, ensuring meaningful emission reductions, and managing relationships with non-members in ways that avoid fragmentation of the multilateral trading system.

Sectoral approaches represent another pathway, focusing on specific industries such as steel, cement, or aviation to develop international agreements on emissions standards or carbon pricing for those sectors. The potential advantage of sectoral approaches lies in their ability to address the unique characteristics of different industries and to facilitate technology transfer and best practice sharing among participants. The International Maritime Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization have pursued sectoral approaches for their respective industries, though progress has been gradual and emissions reductions to date modest. Extending sectoral approaches to other industries would require navigating diverse national interests, technological capabilities, and competitive dynamics within each sector.

Some scholars and policymakers advocate for incorporating stronger climate provisions directly into trade agreements themselves, creating explicit linkages between market access and climate commitments. The European Green Deal envisions trade policy as a lever for promoting global climate action, with sustainability commitments potentially becoming prerequisites for trade partnerships. This approach could theoretically align trade and climate governance more closely, but it risks making trade negotiations even more complex and contentious, potentially stalling both trade liberalization and climate cooperation. Moreover, it may exacerbate asymmetries between powerful economies capable of making market access conditional on climate standards and smaller, less influential countries with limited bargaining power.

Cơ chế điều chỉnh biên giới carbon của Liên minh Châu Âu và tác động toàn cầu

The normative question of whether trade policy should serve as an enforcement mechanism for climate commitments raises fundamental issues about the appropriate scope and purpose of trade agreements. Trade policy has traditionally focused on reducing barriers to commerce and ensuring non-discrimination, with exceptions for legitimate policy objectives. Expanding trade policy’s role to actively promote climate objectives represents a significant paradigm shift that would transform the nature of international economic governance. Proponents view this as a necessary evolution to address the existential threat of climate change, while skeptics worry about mission creep, the potential for protectionist abuse of climate justifications, and the risk of undermining the rule-based multilateral trading system that has underpinned global economic integration.

Looking forward, the trajectory of trade-climate policy integration will likely be shaped by several factors: the pace and stringency of national climate policies, which determine the magnitude of competitive concerns; technological developments that may reduce the costs of decarbonization and improve emissions monitoring; the outcomes of early implementations of instruments like the EU CBAM and their reception by trading partners; and the evolution of international cooperation on climate change, including whether the Paris Agreement’s “bottom-up” approach of nationally determined contributions will be supplemented by more coordinated global approaches. The challenge for the international community is to develop frameworks that simultaneously promote trade openness, support ambitious climate action, respect development needs and equity considerations, and maintain the stability and legitimacy of multilateral institutions. Achieving this multifaceted objective will require not only technical policy innovation but also political will to transcend narrow national interests in pursuit of collective global welfare.

Questions 27-31

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

27. The main purpose of border carbon adjustments is to:

    • A) Increase government revenue from imports
    • B) Equalize carbon costs between domestic and foreign producers
    • C) Prohibit all imports from high-emission countries
    • D) Replace existing trade agreements

28. According to the passage, carbon leakage occurs when:

    • A) Emissions data is inaccurately reported
    • B) Carbon pricing systems fail completely
    • C) Emission reductions in one place are offset by increases elsewhere
    • D) Countries refuse to implement climate policies

29. What technical challenge do BCAs face according to the passage?

    • A) Calculating the exact price of carbon certificates
    • B) Determining which countries should be included
    • C) Measuring embedded carbon in complex supply chains
    • D) Establishing new international organizations

30. The principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” means:

    • A) All countries should adopt identical climate policies
    • B) Developed countries have greater historical responsibility and capacity for climate action
    • C) Only developing countries need to reduce emissions
    • D) Climate policies should ignore economic development needs

31. Climate clubs would involve:

    • A) Mandatory participation by all WTO members
    • B) Coalitions with preferential trade treatment among members
    • C) Complete elimination of all trade barriers
    • D) Sectoral approaches to specific industries only

Questions 32-36

Complete the summary using the list of words/phrases, A-L, below.

The compatibility of border carbon adjustments with WTO rules is uncertain. Critics worry that BCAs might violate 32) __ principles if they treat imported products differently from domestic ones. The concept of 33) __ is central to this debate—whether products with different carbon footprints can be considered equivalent for trade purposes. Beyond legal issues, BCAs raise 34) __ because they might disadvantage developing countries that depend on emission-intensive exports. Some propose 35) __ for the poorest countries, though this must be balanced with maintaining environmental effectiveness. Alternative approaches include 36) __, which would create groups of countries committed to strong climate action with preferential trade among members.

A) equity and development concerns
B) national treatment
C) carbon leakage
D) climate clubs
E) differential treatment
F) process and production methods
G) like products
H) sectoral approaches
I) trade barriers
J) emission standards
K) multilateral agreements
L) competitive advantages

Questions 37-40

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Passage 3?

Write:

• YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
• NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
• NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

37. The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism covers all industrial sectors.

38. Sectoral approaches have achieved rapid and substantial emissions reductions in aviation and maritime industries.

39. Using trade policy to enforce climate commitments represents a significant change in international economic governance.

40. Climate change poses less urgent challenges than maintaining traditional trade liberalization.

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Answer Keys – Đáp Án

PASSAGE 1: Questions 1-13

1. FALSE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. NOT GIVEN
5. TRUE
6. FALSE
7. tariffs
8. environmental regulations
9. ozone layer
10. asymmetry
11. B
12. B
13. B

PASSAGE 2: Questions 14-26

14. C
15. B
16. B
17. B
18. B
19. pollution intensity
20. environmental regulations
21. scale effect
22. uniform global standards / global standards
23. carbon leakage / emissions offshoring
24. NO
25. NO
26. YES

PASSAGE 3: Questions 27-40

27. B
28. C
29. C
30. B
31. B
32. B
33. G
34. A
35. E
36. D
37. NO
38. NO
39. YES
40. NO

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Giải Thích Đáp Án Chi Tiết

Passage 1 – Giải Thích

Câu 1: FALSE

• Dạng câu hỏi: True/False/Not Given
• Từ khóa: 1970s, environmental issues, central focus, trade negotiations
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 1, dòng 2-4
• Giải thích: Bài viết nói rõ “In the early 1970s… environmental concerns were rarely mentioned in trade discussions.” Từ “rarely mentioned” (hiếm khi được nhắc đến) mâu thuẫn trực tiếp với “central focus” (trọng tâm chính) trong câu hỏi. Do đó đáp án là FALSE.

Câu 2: TRUE

• Dạng câu hỏi: True/False/Not Given
• Từ khóa: World Trade Organization, created, provisions, sustainable development
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 2, dòng 1-4
• Giải thích: “The World Trade Organization (WTO), established in 1995… the WTO included provisions that acknowledged the importance of sustainable development.” Câu hỏi paraphrase “created” = “established” và khẳng định WTO có các điều khoản về sustainable development.

Câu 3: TRUE

• Dạng câu hỏi: True/False/Not Given
• Từ khóa: tuna-dolphin dispute, fishing methods, environmental impact
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 3, dòng 1-5
• Giải thích: “The US had implemented regulations prohibiting the importation of tuna caught using methods that resulted in high dolphin mortality rates. Mexico challenged this ban…” Điều này chứng minh tranh chấp liên quan đến phương pháp đánh cá và tác động môi trường (dolphin mortality).

Câu 4: NOT GIVEN

• Dạng câu hỏi: True/False/Not Given
• Từ khóa: NAFTA, first trade agreement, environmental considerations
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 4
• Giải thích: Bài viết nói NAFTA “represented an early attempt” (một nỗ lực ban đầu) nhưng không khẳng định đây là hiệp định đầu tiên. Từ “early” không đồng nghĩa với “first”.

Câu 5: TRUE

• Dạng câu hỏi: True/False/Not Given
• Từ khóa: CPTPP, legally enforceable, environmental commitments
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 5, dòng 3-4
• Giải thích: “This chapter contains legally binding provisions on matters such as marine conservation…” “Legally binding” = “legally enforceable”, và “provisions on” = “commitments”.

Câu 6: FALSE

• Dạng câu hỏi: True/False/Not Given
• Từ khóa: EU trade agreements, stronger enforcement, environmental provisions, commercial provisions
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 7, dòng 1-3
• Giải thích: “While commercial chapters typically have robust enforcement mechanisms… environmental commitments are often subject to weaker enforcement procedures.” Điều này cho thấy environmental provisions có enforcement YẾU HƠN, không mạnh hơn như câu hỏi khẳng định.

Câu 7: tariffs

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 1, dòng 3-4
• Giải thích: “The primary focus was on reducing tariffs, eliminating trade barriers…” Cần điền từ sau “reducing” để hoàn thành ý về mục tiêu kinh tế ban đầu.

Câu 8: environmental regulations

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 2, dòng 4-6
• Giải thích: “This provision has been used to justify various environmental regulations that might otherwise be considered barriers to trade.”

Câu 9: ozone layer

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 5, dòng 3-5
• Giải thích: “…commitments to implement multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) such as… the protection of the ozone layer.”

Câu 10: asymmetry

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 7, dòng 2-3
• Giải thích: “This asymmetry has led some environmental advocates to argue that trade agreements prioritize economic interests over environmental protection.”

Câu 11: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 2, dòng 1-4
• Giải thích: “Unlike its predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the WTO included provisions that acknowledged the importance of sustainable development.” Sự khác biệt chính là WTO có điều khoản về sustainable development mà GATT không có.

Câu 12: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 3, dòng 5-8
• Giải thích: “…should countries be allowed to restrict trade based on how products are made (known as process and production methods or PPMs)…” Đây là định nghĩa rõ ràng của tranh luận về PPMs.

Câu 13: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 7, dòng 4-6
• Giải thích: “Additionally, developing countries sometimes view stringent environmental standards in trade agreements as potential barriers to their economic development…” Mối quan ngại chính là cản trở phát triển kinh tế.

Passage 2 – Giải Thích

Câu 14: C

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 1, dòng 2-6
• Giải thích: “…environmental quality initially deteriorates as economies industrialize and income levels rise, but after reaching a certain threshold of per capita income, further economic growth leads to environmental improvement.” Đây là mô tả về đường cong hình chữ U ngược—chất lượng môi trường giảm rồi tăng theo thu nhập.

Câu 15: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 2, dòng 1-5
• Giải thích: “The scale effect represents the environmental impact of increased economic activity… more natural resources are extracted and more pollution emissions are generated… This effect is generally considered negative from an environmental perspective.”

Câu 16: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 4, dòng 2-6
• Giải thích: “The analysis found that approximately 40% of studies reported a positive correlation… 40% found a negative correlation, and 20% found no significant relationship.” 20% không tìm thấy mối liên hệ đáng kể.

Câu 17: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 6, dòng 5-8
• Giải thích: “However, empirical support for this hypothesis has been surprisingly limited. Most studies find that environmental regulations have only modest effects on firm location decisions…”

Câu 18: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 7, dòng 1-3
• Giải thích: “Research suggests that environmental compliance costs typically constitute only 1-3% of total production costs for manufacturers…”

Câu 19: pollution intensity

• Dạng câu hỏi: Sentence Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 2, dòng 6-9
• Giải thích: “…whether trade liberalization causes countries to specialize in more or less pollution-intensive industries.” Câu hỏi paraphrase bằng “different levels of pollution intensity”.

Câu 20: environmental regulations

• Dạng câu hỏi: Sentence Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 3, dòng 2-5
• Giải thích: “…access to cleaner technologies through international trade and investment, and the adoption of more stringent environmental regulations…”

Câu 21: scale effect

• Dạng câu hỏi: Sentence Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 5, dòng 2-4
• Giải thích: “…generally find that trade liberalization is associated with increased emissions in the short to medium term, primarily through the scale effect.”

Câu 22: uniform global standards / global standards

• Dạng câu hỏi: Sentence Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 7, dòng 4-6
• Giải thích: “…multinational corporations often adopt uniform global standards that exceed minimum requirements in many countries…”

Câu 23: carbon leakage / emissions offshoring

• Dạng câu hỏi: Sentence Completion
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 8, dòng 4-7
• Giải thích: “This phenomenon, known as ‘carbon leakage’ or ’emissions offshoring’…” Cả hai thuật ngữ đều được chấp nhận.

Câu 24: NO

• Dạng câu hỏi: Yes/No/Not Given
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 1, dòng 1-2
• Giải thích: “The empirical relationship between trade liberalization and environmental quality has been the subject of extensive academic research, yet consensus remains elusive.” “Consensus remains elusive” nghĩa là chưa có sự đồng thuận, mâu thuẫn với “reached a clear consensus”.

Câu 25: NO

• Dạng câu hỏi: Yes/No/Not Given
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 7, dòng 6-9
• Giải thích: “…some evidence suggests that foreign direct investment (FDI) can actually promote environmental improvements in host countries through the transfer of cleaner technologies…” Từ “always harms” trong câu hỏi mâu thuẫn với “can actually promote environmental improvements”.

Câu 26: YES

• Dạng câu hỏi: Yes/No/Not Given
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 9, dòng 1-3
• Giải thích: “Looking ahead, the COVID-19 pandemic has prompted renewed discussion about the structure of global supply chains and their environmental implications.” Tác giả xác nhận đại dịch đã làm dấy lên các câu hỏi về cấu trúc chuỗi cung ứng.

Passage 3 – Giải Thích

Câu 27: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 2, dòng 1-5
• Giải thích: “…they seek to equalize the carbon costs faced by domestic producers and foreign competitors by imposing charges on imports from jurisdictions with less stringent carbon pricing…” Đây là mục đích chính của BCAs.

Câu 28: C

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 3, dòng 2-5
• Giải thích: “…BCAs may mitigate carbon leakage—the phenomenon whereby emissions reductions achieved in jurisdictions with stringent climate policies are offset by emissions increases in jurisdictions with weaker policies…”

Câu 29: C

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 4, dòng 2-6
• Giải thích: “…accurately measuring the carbon content of imported products presents significant difficulties, particularly for manufactured goods involving complex global value chains where production processes span multiple jurisdictions.”

Câu 30: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 6, dòng 2-6
• Giải thích: “…the principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’ enshrined in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which recognizes that developed countries bear greater historical responsibility for climate change and possess greater capacity to address it.”

Câu 31: B

• Dạng câu hỏi: Multiple Choice
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 7, dòng 1-4
• Giải thích: “Climate clubs… would establish coalitions of countries committed to strong climate action, with preferential trade treatment among members and potential barriers against non-members.”

Câu 32: B (national treatment)

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion with word list
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 5, dòng 4-7
• Giải thích: “Critics argue that BCAs risk violating national treatment and most-favored-nation principles…”

Câu 33: G (like products)

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion with word list
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 5, dòng 8-10
• Giải thích: “Defenders contend that products with different carbon footprints are not ‘like products’ in the legal sense…”

Câu 34: A (equity and development concerns)

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion with word list
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 6, dòng 1
• Giải thích: “Beyond legal considerations, BCAs raise significant equity and development concerns.”

Câu 35: E (differential treatment)

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion with word list
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 6, dòng 7-9
• Giải thích: “Some analysts advocate for differential treatment or exemptions for least developed countries and small island developing states…”

Câu 36: D (climate clubs)

• Dạng câu hỏi: Summary Completion with word list
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 7, dòng 1-4
• Giải thích: “Climate clubs… would establish coalitions of countries committed to strong climate action, with preferential trade treatment among members…”

Câu 37: NO

• Dạng câu hỏi: Yes/No/Not Given
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 2, dòng 5-7
• Giải thích: “Initially covering cement, iron and steel, aluminum, fertilizers, electricity, and hydrogen…” Từ “initially covering” và danh sách cụ thể cho thấy không phải tất cả các ngành được bao gồm, mâu thuẫn với “all industrial sectors”.

Câu 38: NO

• Dạng câu hỏi: Yes/No/Not Given
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 8, dòng 5-7
• Giải thích: “The International Maritime Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization have pursued sectoral approaches for their respective industries, though progress has been gradual and emissions reductions to date modest.” “Gradual” và “modest” mâu thuẫn với “rapid and substantial”.

Câu 39: YES

• Dạng câu hỏi: Yes/No/Not Given
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 10, dòng 3-5
• Giải thích: “Expanding trade policy’s role to actively promote climate objectives represents a significant paradigm shift that would transform the nature of international economic governance.” Tác giả rõ ràng đồng ý điều này là một thay đổi quan trọng.

Câu 40: NO

• Dạng câu hỏi: Yes/No/Not Given
• Vị trí trong bài: Đoạn 10, dòng 6-8
• Giải thích: “Proponents view this as a necessary evolution to address the existential threat of climate change…” Từ “existential threat” (mối đe dọa tồn tại) cho thấy tác giả coi biến đổi khí hậu là thách thức cực kỳ cấp thiết, mâu thuẫn với “less urgent challenges”.

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Từ Vựng Quan Trọng Theo Passage

Passage 1 – Essential Vocabulary

Từ vựng	Loại từ	Phiên âm	Nghĩa tiếng Việt	Ví dụ từ bài	Collocation
multilateral	adj	/ˌmʌltiˈlætərəl/	đa phương, liên quan nhiều bên	multilateral trade agreements were being negotiated	multilateral negotiations, multilateral cooperation
tariff	n	/ˈtærɪf/	thuế quan	reducing tariffs, eliminating trade barriers	import tariffs, tariff reduction, trade tariffs
sustainable development	n phrase	/səˈsteɪnəbl dɪˈveləpmənt/	phát triển bền vững	acknowledged the importance of sustainable development	promote sustainable development, achieve sustainable development
exhaustible	adj	/ɪɡˈzɔːstəbl/	có thể cạn kiệt	conserve exhaustible natural resources	exhaustible resources, exhaustible materials
provision	n	/prəˈvɪʒn/	điều khoản, quy định	WTO included provisions that acknowledged	legal provisions, treaty provisions
process and production methods	n phrase	/ˈprəʊses ənd prəˈdʌkʃn ˈmeθədz/	quy trình và phương pháp sản xuất	known as process and production methods or PPMs	regulate PPMs, monitor PPMs
incorporation	n	/ɪnˌkɔːpəˈreɪʃn/	sự kết hợp, đưa vào	incorporation of environmental chapters	incorporation of standards, incorporation of provisions
liberalization	n	/ˌlɪbərəlaɪˈzeɪʃn/	tự do hóa	address environmental concerns alongside trade liberalization	trade liberalization, market liberalization
legally binding	adj phrase	/ˈliːɡəli ˈbaɪndɪŋ/	có tính ràng buộc về mặt pháp lý	contains legally binding provisions	legally binding agreements, legally binding commitments
enforceability	n	/ɪnˌfɔːsəˈbɪləti/	tính khả thi trong thực thi	concerns the enforceability of environmental provisions	lack enforceability, ensure enforceability
asymmetry	n	/eɪˈsɪmətri/	sự bất cân xứng	This asymmetry has led some advocates to argue	asymmetry between parties, power asymmetry
greenhouse gas emissions	n phrase	/ˈɡriːnhaʊs ɡæs ɪˈmɪʃnz/	khí thải nhà kính	reducing greenhouse gas emissions	reduce emissions, cut emissions, monitor emissions

Passage 2 – Essential Vocabulary

Từ vựng	Loại từ	Phiên âm	Nghĩa tiếng Việt	Ví dụ từ bài	Collocation
empirical	adj	/ɪmˈpɪrɪkl/	dựa trên thực nghiệm	The empirical relationship between trade liberalization	empirical evidence, empirical research, empirical data
elusive	adj	/ɪˈluːsɪv/	khó nắm bắt, mơ hồ	yet consensus remains elusive	elusive goal, remain elusive, prove elusive
inverted U-shaped	adj phrase	/ɪnˈvɜːtɪd juː ʃeɪpt/	hình chữ U ngược	inverted U-shaped relationship between economic development	inverted curve, inverted pattern
deteriorate	v	/dɪˈtɪəriəreɪt/	suy giảm, xấu đi	environmental quality initially deteriorates	deteriorate rapidly, continue to deteriorate
scale effect	n phrase	/skeɪl ɪˈfekt/	hiệu ứng quy mô	The scale effect represents the environmental impact	negative scale effect, measure scale effect
composition effect	n phrase	/ˌkɒmpəˈzɪʃn ɪˈfekt/	hiệu ứng cơ cấu	The composition effect refers to changes in structure	analyze composition effect, composition effect varies
technique effect	n phrase	/tekˈniːk ɪˈfekt/	hiệu ứng kỹ thuật	The technique effect encompasses improvements	positive technique effect, technique effect offsets
comparative advantage	n phrase	/kəmˈpærətɪv ədˈvɑːntɪdʒ/	lợi thế so sánh	depending on a country’s comparative advantage	exploit comparative advantage, comparative advantage theory
harmonization	n	/ˌhɑːmənaɪˈzeɪʃn/	sự hài hòa hóa, điều hòa	encourage the harmonization of environmental standards	regulatory harmonization, policy harmonization
meta-analysis	n	/ˌmetə əˈnæləsɪs/	phân tích tổng hợp	A meta-analysis conducted by researchers	conduct meta-analysis, comprehensive meta-analysis
confounding factors	n phrase	/kənˈfaʊndɪŋ ˈfæktəz/	yếu tố gây nhiễu	isolating trade’s effects from other confounding factors	control for confounding factors, identify confounding factors
carbon intensity	n phrase	/ˈkɑːbən ɪnˈtensəti/	cường độ carbon	carbon intensity of their exports	high carbon intensity, reduce carbon intensity
pollution haven hypothesis	n phrase	/pəˈluːʃn ˈheɪvn haɪˈpɒθəsɪs/	giả thuyết thiên đường ô nhiễm	The pollution haven hypothesis represents another important dimension	test pollution haven hypothesis, support for hypothesis
perverse incentive	n phrase	/pəˈvɜːs ɪnˈsentɪv/	động cơ trái ngược, phản tác dụng	creates a perverse incentive for countries	create perverse incentives, avoid perverse incentives
embodied carbon	n phrase	/ɪmˈbɒdid ˈkɑːbən/	carbon ẩn chứa	products may embody significant embodied carbon	calculate embodied carbon, reduce embodied carbon

Passage 3 – Essential Vocabulary

Từ vựng	Loại từ	Phiên âm	Nghĩa tiếng Việt	Ví dụ từ bài	Collocation
consequential	adj	/ˌkɒnsɪˈkwenʃl/	quan trọng, có hậu quả lớn	one of the most consequential and contentious domains	consequential decision, consequential impact
regulatory divergence	n phrase	/ˈreɡjələtəri daɪˈvɜːdʒəns/	sự khác biệt về quy định	potential for regulatory divergence in climate policies	regulatory divergence increases, address regulatory divergence
border carbon adjustments	n phrase	/ˈbɔːdə ˈkɑːbən əˈdʒʌstmənts/	điều chỉnh carbon biên giới	Border carbon adjustments have emerged	implement BCAs, design BCAs
embedded carbon emissions	n phrase	/ɪmˈbedɪd ˈkɑːbən ɪˈmɪʃnz/	lượng khí thải carbon ẩn chứa	corresponding to the embedded carbon emissions	calculate embedded emissions, measure embedded emissions
carbon leakage	n phrase	/ˈkɑːbən ˈliːkɪdʒ/	rò rỉ carbon	BCAs may mitigate carbon leakage	prevent carbon leakage, risk of carbon leakage
emissions-intensive trade-exposed	adj phrase	/ɪˈmɪʃnz ɪnˈtensɪv treɪd ɪkˈspəʊzd/	phát thải cao và nhạy cảm với thương mại	emissions-intensive trade-exposed industries	protect EITE industries, vulnerable EITE sectors
race to the top	n phrase	/reɪs tə ðə tɒp/	cuộc đua nâng cao tiêu chuẩn	catalyzing a “race to the top” in climate ambition	promote race to the top, encourage race to the top
upstream emissions	n phrase	/ˌʌpˈstriːm ɪˈmɪʃnz/	khí thải thượng nguồn	upstream emissions from raw materials	account for upstream emissions, reduce upstream emissions
granular emissions data	n phrase	/ˈɡrænjələ ɪˈmɪʃnz ˈdeɪtə/	dữ liệu khí thải chi tiết	tracking and verifying such granular emissions data	collect granular data, granular data requirements
arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination	n phrase	/ˈɑːbɪtrəri ɔː ʌnˈdʒʌstɪfaɪəbl dɪˌskrɪmɪˈneɪʃn/	phân biệt đối xử tùy tiện hoặc không chính đáng	arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries	constitute arbitrary discrimination, avoid unjustifiable discrimination
national treatment	n phrase	/ˈnæʃnəl ˈtriːtmənt/	đối xử quốc gia	violating national treatment principles	national treatment obligations, ensure national treatment
most-favored-nation	adj	/məʊst ˈfeɪvəd ˈneɪʃn/	tối huệ quốc	most-favored-nation principles	MFN status, MFN treatment
common but differentiated responsibilities	n phrase	/ˈkɒmən bət ˌdɪfəˈrenʃieɪtɪd rɪˌspɒnsəˈbɪlətiz/	trách nhiệm chung nhưng có phân biệt	principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”	uphold CBDR principle, CBDR framework
climate clubs	n phrase	/ˈklaɪmət klʌbz/	các câu lạc bộ khí hậu	Climate clubs would establish coalitions	form climate clubs, join climate clubs
sectoral approaches	n phrase	/sekˈtɔːrəl əˈprəʊtʃɪz/	phương pháp theo ngành	Sectoral approaches represent another pathway	adopt sectoral approaches, sectoral approaches focus
paradigm shift	n phrase	/ˈpærədaɪm ʃɪft/	chuyển đổi mô hình tư duy	represents a significant paradigm shift	undergo paradigm shift, paradigm shift transforms
rule-based multilateral trading system	n phrase	/ruːl beɪst ˌmʌltiˈlætərəl ˈtreɪdɪŋ ˈsɪstəm/	hệ thống thương mại đa phương dựa trên quy tắc	undermining the rule-based multilateral trading system	preserve trading system, strengthen trading system
nationally determined contributions	n phrase	/ˈnæʃnəli dɪˈtɜːmɪnd ˌkɒntrɪˈbjuːʃnz/	đóng góp do quốc gia tự quyết định	bottom-up approach of nationally determined contributions	submit NDCs, strengthen NDCs

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Kết Bài

Chủ đề về tác động của các hiệp định thương mại toàn cầu đến tính bền vững môi trường không chỉ là một nội dung học thuật quan trọng mà còn phản ánh những thách thức thực tế mà thế giới đang đối mặt. Qua bộ đề thi mẫu này, bạn đã được thực hành với ba passages có độ khó tăng dần, từ những khái niệm cơ bản về mối quan hệ giữa thương mại và môi trường ở Passage 1, đến phân tích thực nghiệm về các hiệu ứng kinh tế-môi trường ở Passage 2, và cuối cùng là những tranh luận chính sách phức tạp về điều chỉnh carbon biên giới ở Passage 3.

Đề thi này đã cung cấp đầy đủ 40 câu hỏi với 7 dạng bài khác nhau, giúp bạn làm quen với format thi thật của IELTS Reading. Đáp án chi tiết kèm giải thích về vị trí thông tin, cách paraphrase và kỹ thuật làm bài sẽ giúp bạn hiểu rõ tại sao mỗi đáp án đúng hoặc sai, từ đó rút ra bài học cho những lần làm bài tiếp theo. Hãy kết hợp những ý nghĩa về How climate action is integrated into cultural studies và Renewable energy innovations in developing countries để mở rộng vốn kiến thức của bạn về các chủ đề môi trường liên quan.

Bảng từ vựng được phân loại theo từng passage với phiên âm, nghĩa tiếng Việt, ví dụ và collocations sẽ là tài liệu quý giá để bạn học thuộc và sử dụng không chỉ trong Reading mà còn trong Writing và Speaking. Hãy dành thời gian ôn tập kỹ những từ vựng chuyên ngành này vì chúng thường xuyên xuất hiện trong các đề thi IELTS về môi trường, kinh tế và chính sách toàn cầu.

Những chiến lược đọc hiểu như xác định từ khóa, tìm paraphrase, quản lý thời gian và phân tích cấu trúc câu hỏi được minh họa qua phần giải thích chi tiết sẽ giúp bạn nâng cao kỹ năng làm bài một cách có hệ thống. Đừng quên rằng việc luyện tập thường xuyên với các đề thi có chất lượng như thế này là chìa khóa để đạt band điểm mong muốn. Tương tự như cách tiếp cận trong The role of digital transformation in global trade, việc hiểu sâu về các xu hướng toàn cầu sẽ giúp bạn dự đoán và làm quen với nội dung thi.

Nếu bạn muốn tìm hiểu thêm về các chủ đề liên quan đến môi trường và phát triển bền vững, hãy khám phá các bài viết về What are the effects of climate change on global fisheries? và Electric vehicles in public transport để mở rộng vốn từ vựng và kiến thức nền tảng của bạn.

Chúc bạn học tập hiệu quả và đạt kết quả cao trong kỳ thi IELTS sắp tới!